Theory of Mind Essay Example for Free

Theory of Mind Essay Within this TMA I will be discussing Theory of Mind and how it may have evolved in humans, using the Theory of Evolution to explain this. I will also be looking at what the adaptive function of Theory of Mind in humans may be. The adaptive function in this essay means the relative ability of a person to effectively interact with society on all levels and care for one’s self; affected by one’s eagerness to practice skills and follow opportunities for enhancement. Evolution is the procedure which modern organisms have descended from the earliest ancestors. Evolution is accountable for both the similarities and the diversity across all species. Essential to the process is genetic variation on which selective forces can act in order for evolution to occur. Evolution can also be described as descent with modification. Evolution occurs when there is a modification in gene regularity in a population over time. These genetic differences can be inherited and may be passed on to the subsequent generations. The main idea of evolution is all life on earth shares a common ancestor. Charles Darwin first proposed the theory of evolution after spending time on the Galapagos Islands. He developed the theory of evolution which would oppose the creation of man and imply that all species derived from common ancestors through natural selection. Natural selection is thought to be the main factor resulting in the diversity of species. Natural Selection is as stated by Barrett (2002) â€Å"The process whereby physical and behavioral characteristics which enable survival are passed onto descendants† (as cited in Clegg. 2007. Pg121). The disappearance of less suited gene traits and the survival of the better suited genetic traits led Darwin to reason that organisms had evolved over time, where the most advantageous characteristics of species’ are preferred and those organisms who demonstrate them survive to pass on their genes. Darwin believed that organisms had evolved to adapt to their environments. This allowed them to fill a niche in which they would be well suited to their environment and in turn increase survival chances. Darwins finches are an example of the way the species genetic traits have adapted for long term survival via their young. The beaks of the finches Darwin discovered have evolved to be best suited to their purpose. For example, the finches that eat grubs have a slim extended beak to poke holes into the earth and retrieve the grubs. Finches that eat fruits and buds would not be successful at this, as their larger beaks grind down food which gives them an advantage in situations where buds are the only food source for finches. Within humans many adaptations have occurred through Darwin’s idea of natural selection. â€Å"An adaptation is an evolved property of an organism, the original function of which adds to its fitness† (Clegg, 2007, p122). One of these adaptations is called Theory of Mind. Theory of Mind is â€Å"the ability to explain and predict the actions of both oneself and other† (Clegg, 2007, p133). To have Theory of Mind would allow humans to understand what another person feels and use that information to adjust their own actions Studies have been carried out on primates closely related to humans in the gene pool to try and understand the evolution of Theory of Mind. One observation completed by Whiten in 1997 was that of an ape who distracted another to keep the competitor from food which the original ape had seen (as cited in Clegg, 2007, p139). This ape’s deception may point to the ape possessing some Theory of Mind as it realised that the competitor would have d esired the food item also. This can also be related to modern humans as the ability to find food can also be a difficult task for some people such as the tribes who live in the deserts. This will attract a partner as it shows the ability to provide and survive, and will be passed through generations. Archaeological evidence can also be used to try to understand the evolution of Theory of Mind in our ancestors, when it fully appeared in Homo sapiens and its adaptive function. The appearance of archaeological art e.g. cave drawings, around 30,000 years ago shows the humans at the time had the ability to imagine things which allowed them to create the artwork. With the ability to do this it can be said that the people who drew the artwork possessed Theory of Mind. These cave drawings may have been used to attract a partner, which means the genes for imagining and creating the artwork would have been passed to their subsequent children. This adaptation would provide the next generation of humans with the ability to imagine and therefore possessing a quality of Theory of Mind. When this adaptation was passed on and used by the children it would have allowed them to create partnerships and their offspring would also have the same trait. This would allow the gene to become an advantage and therefore be passed on through the generations and continue until the Homo sapiens of today. The ability to imagine can still be used today as a means of attracting a partner. Theory of Mind also allows us to interact with success with other humans and how to understand how someone is feeling from their actions. With the evidence and explanations provided Theory of Mind is an advantage to modern humans as its adaptive function may be to allow individuals to survive longer and therefore create more offspring with the desirable characteristic to suit the environment into which it is born. This allows the Homo sapiens to continue to survive upon the earth. References Clegg, H (2007). Evolutionary Psychology. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, K. Thomas (Eds), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed., pp.105-160). Milton Keynes: The Open University

William Kinmond’s What a newsman found who got into red China and Mark

William Kinmond’s What a newsman found who got into red China and Mark Salzman’s Iron and Silk In William Kinmond’s â€Å"What a newsman found who got into red China† and Mark Salzman’s Iron and Silk, the reader experiences a mental ride of China. Both Salzman and Kinmond use subtlety and skill to write about what they found in Red China. The texts’ have somewhat different subject matters because each writer visited China with different motives and at different time periods. As the title suggests, Kinmond who goes to China in 1957 is there to report for the Canadian newspaper ‘The Globe and Mail’. On the other hand, Salzman goes to China in 1982 to teach English. Nonetheless, both writers’ construction of Red China and its people can be zeroed in with the help of one important issue; their coverage of train transport. Trains are by far the main means of transport in China and most people’s lives are centered around them. Although, through the analysis of train travel, both Salzman and Kinmond construct the C hinese people, Salzman concentrates on the government connection in train transport while Kinmond concentrates on the actual conditions aboard a train. Salzman’s first point about government interference is that travel officials are on a power trip when it comes to dealing with travelers. Since the communist government controls and governs all aspects of train business, Salzman vividly constructs the relationship between the people and the government. He shows that unlike in his home country of USA, travel officials in China go out of their way to deliberately interfere with people’s travels. After two years of teaching English and learning kung-fu in China, Salzman’s received lots of gifts from hi... ...r the reader through their coverage of train travel although they each largely concentrate on the different aspects of it. Salzman illustrates that the government is present in all aspects of train travel in china and people have to put up to its way of running the show. Kinmond shows that the train accommodation is of so low key, but the Chinese people put up to it anyway. Their similar observation concerning government propaganda soliciting should show the ‘the cause and effect’ relationship between government interference and bad accommodation. Works Cited List: Chui, May. Student at Lafayette College. An interview with her in the library. April 11, 2001. Kinmond, William. â€Å"What a Newsman Found Who Got into Red China†. US News and World Report. New York. August 9th, 1957. Salzman , Mark. Iron and Silk . Vintage Departments . New York (1986).

Captivity of Mary Rowlandson and the Relation

Both of these writers encounter and more importantly, live amongst the Native people of the Americas as captives at one point of their lives. However, each experience different situations and go about representing those situations in their writing in two completely dissimilar narratives. Each of them enter into captivity with distinctive roles-?Rowland as a Puritanical mother and Caber De Vacate as a Spanish Imperial explorer. Railroading's overall tone in her narrative can be described as edifying in the sense that A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs..Mary Rowland can be used as a example for readers, especially in her overall belief in God. She says, m{et the Lord still showed mercy to me, and upheld me; and as He wounded me with one hand, so he healed me with another (Bam and Levine 261). † Rowland demonstrates the recurring theme of the centrality of God and HIS will In this one sentence which could possibly be used to correspond to the entirety of her capti vity. Notice her use of a dichotomy in the sentence. She is â€Å"wounded. † But then, she is â€Å"healed. † With what?With God's Hand. This exhibits Railroading's belief that God Lana everything: good and bad. It can also be concluded that Railroading's narrative shows the more generalized view of the Puritan beliefs. Also, note Railroading's tone in this passage of the narrative that can be associated to the good and bad that God plans. ‘Wounded† carries a more despaired tone while â€Å"healed† holds a more hopeful tone-?the hope In God that He will carry her out of her despair. Rowland continuously revisits the idea of God's centrality in her whole narrative.She says: I have thought since of the wonderful goodness of God to me in reserving me in the use of my reason and senses in that distressed time, that I did not wicked and violent means to end my own miserable life†¦ When I came I asked them what they had done with It; then they told me It was upon the hill. Then they went and showed me where It was, where I saw the ground was newly digger, and there they told me they had buried it. There I left that child in the wilderness, and must commit it, and myself also in this wilderness condition, to Him who is above all.God having taken away this dear child†¦ (Nina and Levine 261-262). As a Christian and other, this must have affected Rowland severely. The thought of her dead baby being buried by soulless savages without any proper Christian funeral rites probably outraged her, but nonetheless, she refuses to end her â€Å"miserable life† and quickly punishment from God, but also notes that through and after captivity, God saved her. Alva Ounce Caber De Visa's account of his captivity with the Karakas Indians and several other Indian tribes also has this presence of God that is explicit in Railroading's narrative.The Relation constantly addresses â€Å"God our Lord. † He says in is dedication, â€Å"A lthough everyone wants what advantage may be gained from ambition and action, we see everywhere great inequalities of fortune, brought about not by conduct but by accident, and not through anybody fault but as the will of God (Bam and Levin 44). † It is important to make a note of the fact that Caber De Vacate was an imperial explorer for Spain under Painful De Narrate.The reason for his expedition in America was to claim the Florida territory for Spain, but the expedition failed greatly and led to the captivity of Caber De Vacate and three other men. Like Rowland, Caber De Vacate returns to civilization. Although he does not refer to his captivity as punishment from God, he does mention his incarceration as nobody's â€Å"fault but as the will of God. † It can be implied that Caber De Vacate says this to escape any actual punishment he may receive from the Spanish crown. After all, the expedition was funded with the expectation of profit I. . Gold and silver. He mentio ns at the end of the dedication, â€Å"l beg that it may be received as homage, since it is the most once could bring who returned thence naked (Bam and Levine 45). † The underlying tone in this sentence is desperation-?desperation in that sense that the king accept his narrative and desperation, and even perhaps hope, that God will deliver him from any forthcoming punishment made from the king. Caber De Vacate â€Å"begs† that his account can be viewed as a gift while claiming the role of â€Å"God's will† in his captivity.Thus, he implies that his nakedness in both appearance and profit be seen as something God himself determined. Caber De Vacate says, â€Å"Eating the dogs seemed to give us strength enough to go forward; so commending ourselves to the audience of God our Lord, we took leave of our hosts, who pointed out the way to other nearby who spoke their language (Bam and Levine 48). † Like Rowland who put her faith in God, Caber De Vacate, along with the other survivors, commends himself to God's guidance. However, he actually comes to respect the Indians as he resides with them which is expressed near the end of The Relation.He shares: To the last I could not convince the Indians that we were of the same people as the Christian Slavers†¦ We ordered them to fear no more†¦ After we had dismissed the Indians in ace and thanked them for their toil in our behalf†¦ [The Christians] took us through the forests and wastes so we would not communicate with the natives and would neither see nor learn of their crafty scheme afoot. Thus we often misjudge the motives of men; we thought we had effected the Indian's liberty, when the Christians were but poising to pounce (Bam and Levine 51).Notice how Caber De Vacate refers to the Spanish as â€Å"the Christians. † He does not include himself in the passage as one of the Christians probably because he has been able to tolerate and come to respect he native people. He does try to persuade the Indians that he is of the same race simply for their safety. He says: Lazar bade his interpreter tell the Indians that we were members of his race who had been long lost†¦ The Indians paid no attention to this. Conferring to themselves, they replied that the Christian's had lied: †¦ E healed and lanced; we coveted nothing but gave whatever we were given, while they robbed whomever they found and bestowed nothing on anyone (Bam and Nina 50) This differs from Rowland who regularly refers to the Native Americans as savages. In Caber De Visa's text, it is these â€Å"Christians† who appear to be the savages. The tone in this passage is almost regretful. Caber De Visa's use of dichotomies in this passage iterates the sadness on the idea that these supposed holy men ravage on helpless, innocent Indians according to God's will.This is exactly the opposite in Railroading's text where she views the native people as nothing short of barbaric like in the instance where her baby is improperly buried according to Christian guidelines. However, there are instances where Rowland comes to note the molarities between the Englishmen and the Indians. She also comes to somewhat embrace the savagery of the Indians when she eats bear's meat and finds it â€Å"savory' and â€Å"pleasant† rather than repulsive as Caber De Vacate does when he eats dog meat and prances around naked.

A Biographical Profile of Neil deGrasse Tyson

American astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson is one of the most popular and prolific science communicators of the early twenty-first century. Neil deGrasse Tyson Biographical Information Birth Date: October 5, 1958 Birthplace: New York, NY, USA (Born in Manhattan, raised in Bronx) Ethnicity: African-American/Puerto Rican Educational Background Neil deGrasse Tyson developed an interest in astronomy at age 9. While attending the Bronx High School of Science, Tyson was editor-in-chief of the schools Physical Science Journal. He was giving lectures on astronomy at the age of fifteen, foreshadowing a career in science communication. When he looked for a college, he came to the attention of Carl Sagan at Cornell University, and Sagan proved to be something of a mentor to him, despite the fact that he ultimately chose to attend Harvard. He has earned the following degrees: 1980 - B.A. physics, Harvard University1983 - M.A. astronomy, University of Texas at Austin1989 - Ph.M. astrophysics, Columbia University1991 - Ph.D. astrophysics, Columbia University He has since earned a number of honorary degrees. Non-Scientific Extracurricular Pursuits Awards Tyson was captain of his high school wrestling team. Despite some time during his freshman year at Harvard on the crew team (rowing, for those of us who didnt attend ivy league colleges), Tyson returned to wrestling and lettered in the sport during his senior year at Harvard. He was also an avid dancer and in 1985 earned an International Latin Ballroom Style gold medal with the University of Texas dance team. In 2000, Dr. Tyson was named the Sexiest Astrophysicist Alive by People Magazine (begging the question of which non-living astrophysicists may have beaten him). Though this is technically an award that he got because he was an astrophysicist, since the award itself is for a non-scientific achievement (his raw sexiness), weve decided to classify it here rather than with his academic achievements. Though related to his scientific views, Tyson has been categorized as an atheist because he advocates that religion has no place in influencing scientific questions and debates. He has, however, argued that if he must be classified, he believes that his stance is better categorized as agnosticism than atheism, since he claims no definitive position on the existence or non-existence of God. He did, however, receive the 2009 Isaac Asimov Science Award from the American Humanist Association. Academic Research Related Achievements Neil deGrasse Tysons research is largely in the realm of astrophysics and cosmology, with an emphasis in areas of stellar and galactic formation and evolution. This research, as well as his work as an avid science communicator with a wide range of popular science publications, helped position him for a position as director the Hayden Planetarium at the Rose Center for Earth and Space, part of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Dr. Tyson has received a number of awards and honors, including the following: 2001 - Appointed by President George W. Bush to Commission on the Future of the United Aerospace Industry2001 - The Tech 100 (Crains Magazines list of 100 most influential technology leaders in New York)2001 - Medal of Excellence, Columbia University, New York City2004 - Appointed by President George W. Bush to Presidents Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy2004 - NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal2004 - Fifty Most Important African-Americans in Research Science2007 - Klopsteg Memorial Award winner2007 - Time 100 (Time Magazines list of 100 most influential persons in the world)2008 - 50 Best Brains in Science (Discover Magazine)2009 - Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach award Plutos Demotion The Rose Center for Earth and Space Science re-classified Pluto as an icy comet in XXXX, sparking a media firestorm. The man behind this decision was Neil deGrasse Tyson himself, the director of the Rose Center, though he was not acting alone. The debate got so intense that it had to be resolved by a vote at the International Astronomical Union (IAU) at their 2006 General Assembly, which decided Pluto was not a planet, but was actually a dwarf planet. (Not, it should be noted, the icy comet classification that the Rose Center originally used.) Tysons involvement in the debate was the basis for this 2010 book The Pluto Files: The Rise and Fall of Americas Favorite Planet, which focuses not only on the science related to the debate, but also considerations about the publics perceptions of Pluto. Popular Books Merlins Tour of the Universe (1989) - Tysons first book was a collection of question/answer pieces from the popular astronomy magazine Star Date. It is told through the narrative tool of being answered by Merlin, an alien visitor to Earth from Planet Omniscia, who has spent much time on Earth and been friends with many of Earths greatest scientists throughout history, such as Johannes Kepler and Albert Einstein.Universe Down to Earth (1994) - A popular book intended to introduce non-science audiences to the current science of astrophysics. While of historical interest, it should be noted that in 1994 there was no evidence of dark energy, so our understanding of the universe has transformed substantially since that time, so a more recent volume is suggested to get a modern introduction.Just Visiting This Planet (1998) - This is follow-up volume to Merlins Tour of the Universe, with additional question/answer pieces from Star Date magazine.One Universe: At Home in the Cosmos (2000) - C o-authored with Charles Tsun-Chu Liu and Robert Iroion, this book again tries to explain key astrophysics concepts, but has the added benefit of being a beautiful volume containing many photographs. At the time of this writing, however, this book appears to be out of print and largely unavailable, but there are no shortage of more recent books that cover this material and offer pictures from Hubble and other space telescopes.Cosmic Horizons: Astronomy at the Cutting Edge (2000) - Co-edited with Steven Soter, this again is an illustrated book that attempts to explain the key features of modern astrophysics.City of Stars: A New Yorkers Guide to the Cosmos (2002) - The title is interesting, but this book also appears to be out of print, and finding information on it is even less forthcoming.My Favorite Universe (2003) - Based on Dr. Tysons 12-part lecture series of the same name through The Great Courses video lecture series.Origins: Fourteen Billion Years of Cosmic Evolution (2004) - Co-authored with Donald Goldsmith, this is a companion volume to his four-part Origins miniseries for PBS Nova series, focusing on the current state of cosmology.The Sky is Not the Limit: Adventures of an Urban Astrophysicist (2004) - This is an engaging memoir of Neil deGrasse Tysons life, and how his early interest in the night sky eventually led him to become an astrophysicist. Insights are offered into various challenges he faced, including the racial challenges of being a minority physicist, making this a memoir that is worthwhile and educational on a number of different levels.Death by Black Hole: And Other Cosmic Quandries (2007) - This is a collection of several of Dr. Tysons most popular articles.The Pluto Files: The Rise and Fall of Americas Favorite Planet (2010) - In this book, Dr. Tyson discusses some of the key scientific and non-scientific elements of the debate over Plutos controversial demotion from a planet classification to one of dwarf planet.Space Chronicles (20 14) - In this collection of essays, Dr. Tyson muses on the past, present, and future of the space program. Specifically focusing on the program in the United States, he outlines a vision for largely unmanned space exploration that can yield positive scientific results at significantly reduced costs and risk to human life. He also goes into some depth in the discussion of the economics and motivation at work in the history of the space program, and the challenges that future achievements would have to overcome. Television Other Media Neil deGrasse Tyson has been a guest on so many media sources that it would be virtually impossible to list them all. Since he lives in New York City, hes frequently a go-to science expert for a variety of shows, including appearances in morning shows for major networks. Below are some of his most noteworthy media appearances: Dr. Tyson has repeatedly appeared on both The Daily Show with Jon Stewart and The Colbert Report for Comedy Central. On one such appearance, he told Jon Stewart that the globe in the background of his television studio is actually rotating the wrong direction.Video clips of Dr. Tyson from The Daily Show with Jon StewartVideo clips of Dr. Tyson from The Colbert ReportStarTalk Radio Podcast - Dr. Tyson hosts a podcast through the Hayden Planetarium, called StarTalk, where he discusses various science topics, interviews interesting guests, and answers assorted questions from his audience. A video edition of the podcast is also available through YouTube.Nova ScienceNOW - Dr. Tyson was the host of the PBS series Nova ScienceNOW from 2006 through 2011 (seasons 2 through 5), introducing the various segments and then wrapping things up at the end of the episode, often sporting a stylish space-themed vest.Cosmos: A Space-Time Odyssey - Fox is bringing back the science mini-series Cosmos, in 2 014, and Neil deGrasse Tyson is going to be the narrator. Created with Carl Sagans widow Ann Druyan (who was instrumental in the first Cosmos as well) and animator Seth McFarlane, the show is slated to begin airing episodes on March 9, 2014, on both Fox and the National Geographic Channel. Edited by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.