An Information Theoretic Theory On Phonological Status And...

The finding that the learning of phonological status is constrained by the phonetic naturalness has a strong implication to theories on phonological status and its perceptual effect. Traditional theories have argued that the conditioned distribution plays a central role in determining the phonological status of sounds citep[e.g.][]{chomsky1968sound, kenstowicz1979generative}. When two sounds occur in the same contexts, they are phonemes. When two sounds occur in mutually exclusive contexts, they are allophones. Recent theories have argued against the dichotomy between phonemes and allophones. In these theories, phonological status is viewed as a probabilistic phenomenon and the relative predictabilities of sounds in contexts determines the†¦show more content†¦Messages with more information content require more processing energy in the brain citep[e.g.][]{harrison2006encoding, sinkkonen1999information}. Therefore, the perceptual system strategically allocates processing ener gy depending on the informativeness of messages. It uses more energy to process less predictable or more informative messages and less energy to process more predictable or less informative messages citep[e.g.][]{treisman1965effects}. Based on the information theoretic view on human cognition, citeauthor{hall2009probabilistic} argued that listeners are less sensitive to the acoustic difference between native allophones because their perceptual system selectively allocates less energy to process the allophones. In other words, listeners become less attentive to the phonetic properties of the allophones because they are predictable and not informative. citeauthor{hall2009probabilistic} states extit{for pairs of sounds (X and Y) for which there is a low degree of uncertainty (in context C), it is less crucial for mature language users to pay particular attention to acoustic and articulatory cues used to differentiate X and Y in C because these cues are redundant with the information provided by C} citep[pg.117]{hall2009probabilistic}. As it is clearly stated in the quote above, citeauthor{hall2009probabilistic} s main focus is the question of how mature language user

Soical Cognitive Theory - 1023 Words

One of the major challenges to behaviorism came from studies on observational learning conducted by Albert Bandura and colleagues. (Schunk, 2012) In contrast to Skinner Bandura’s social cognitive theory states people learn new actions merely by observing others perform them. Observers did not have to perform the actions at the time of learning. (Schunk, 2012) For example new employees watching their employer demonstrate how to wrap a knife, and ship it. The employee necessarily would not have to perform the task to learn how to do it. The heart of observational learning is modeling, which is more than simple imitation, because it involves adding and subtracting from the behavior. Bandura recognized four processes that govern†¦show more content†¦He may then reenact or model those learned behaviors. Bandura’s states that every stage of the learning process, increased cognitive skill and ability will result in increased accuracy in learning. (Burton, 1999) A sexually aggressive child who was abused or who has witnessed a great deal of sexual activity may store the representation of the behavior incorrectly. The child may then act out the behaviors instead of understanding it is something he should not do. So many times with sexually abused children counselors have to reeducate the children in to what is appropriate behavior, along with counseling them on the abuse. Social Cognitive Paper Relationship between Social Cognitive, Motivation, and Self Efficacy The very core of the social cognitive theory self-efficacy beliefs provides the foundation for human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment. (Pajares, 2002) Unless people actions can produce the outcomes they desire, they have little incentive to act or to persist in the face of difficulties. Bandura’s key contentions in regards to the role self-efficacy beliefs in human functioning is that â€Å"people’s levels of motivation affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true.† (Pajares, 2002) Compare Behaviorism to Social CognitiveShow MoreRelatedEssay on How Red Bull Maintain Their Stronghold8091 Words   |  33 Pageslegend, containing leaves from â€Å"Asia’s sacred tree†, the Ginkgo Biloba aids concentration. (CarpeDiem.com (a+b) [ca. 2009]. â€Å"Homeopathic† drinks, made with spring water, herbs and plants were launched in 2003. Drawing on Greek physician Hippocrates’ theories, they have relaxing, harmonising, or vitalising effects and are 100% natural with no added sugar, flavours, colouring or preservatives (CarpeDiem.com (c) [ca. 2009]). Carpe Diems elusive nature echoes Red Bull ®Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s marketing strategies. By using very

Martin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail - 1707 Words

Through the span of Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963) Martin Luther King Jr., makes stretched out implications to various logicians, among them Aquinas and Socrates. His correlation would appear to show that he imparts a liking to them. In any case, the clearness with which he makes his contentions and the commitment to a solitary start strikes most firmly of Kant. Similarly, as Kant s artful culmination, Critique of Pure Reason, endeavored to totally overturn a formerly acknowledged method of thought, so likewise was King s work gave to a solitary goal: the security of common noncompliance as a type of challenge with the end goal that the Civil Rights Movement could proceed in uncompromised frame. Notwithstanding this peculiarity of†¦show more content†¦We have some eighty-five affiliated organizations across the South, and one of them is the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights. Frequently, we share staff, educational, and financial resources with our affiliates. ( pg 254-255) The reason for the acquaintance is with build up his validity as an individual from the United States of America. He is demonstrating to them that he contains the same amount of acumen regarding the matter of shamefulness and racial segregation, if not more. Martin Luther King Jr. at that point claims to feeling by demonstrating the trials his kin have experienced. He does this by utilizing lines, for example, When you have seen vicious mobs lynch your mothers and fathers at will and drown your sisters and brothers at whim.(pg 258), and when you have seen hate-filled policeman curse, kick, and even kill your black brothers and sisters.† (pg 258) In these lines he is utilizing flammable dialect like vicious mobs and parallelism, for example, lynch your mothers and fathers at will and drown your sisters and brothers at whim by utilizing this sort of dialect and sentence structure King is influencing you to imagine and feel what he needed to see his loved ones experi ence in those harsh circumstances. All through the entire section utilizing this sort of sentence structure and a great deal of symbolism the crowd begins to feel what it resembles to be in King sShow MoreRelatedMartin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail839 Words   |  4 Pages1960’s one of the most well- known civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and was placed into a jail in Birmingham Alabama for eleven days (Westbrook 1). Martin Luther King did not commit a crime that was in violation of any law in the U.S Constitution. King was arrested for taking a direct action for the Black community that was harassed and judged every day for there color of their skin. In King’s Letter From Birmingham Jail on the 16th of April 1963 he illuminates the daily brutalityRead MoreMartin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail1340 Words   |  6 PagesOn April 16, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. wrote a letter from Birmingham Jail after he had been arrested for nonviolent protests. In this letter he addressed a few of his fellow clergymen who had commented on King’s work in Birmingham and how they perceived it to be â€Å"unwise and untimely.† He told them that he had, in fact, been issued an invitation to help the people of Birmingham and that he was â€Å"compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond [his] hometown.† King assured the clergymen that heRead MoreRev. Martin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail950 Words   |  4 Pages15 November 2017 â€Å"No, baby, no, you may not go, for the dogs are fierce and wild, and clubs and hoses, guns and jails, aren’t good for a little child.† (Allusion - referring to another work to apply symbolic meaning). This quote from â€Å"Ballad of Birmingham† illustrates the horror and cruelty of how African Americans were treated at that time, as no place was safe or free from racism; there was no limits to the violence that came with it. The 1950’s and 1960’s was an era where the Civil RightsRead MoreSummary Of Martin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail1159 Words   |  5 Pages Martin Luther King lived in a time where Negro people were faced with a multitude of social injustices. King was actively participating in passive protests opposing the laws which upheld these injustices. In his â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail† King replies to the criticism of eight clergymen, who called him and his companions extremists and law breakers (King 18 7). In his letter of response, King both shows his disappointment with these men, as well as plead with them to see his side. King wantsRead More Martin Luther Kings Letter from Birmingham Jail Essay1241 Words   |  5 PagesRhetorical Analysis of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.s Letter from Birmingham Jail In his essay Letter from Birmingham Jail, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. disproves the assumptions of people that believe racism is acceptable when he compares the maltreatment of blacks to the inhumane treatment of the Jews by Hitler. King establishes a relationship with his audience by connecting on a level that is larger than the exploitation of African Americans rights. He forces his readers to think aboutRead MoreEssay on Martin Luther Kings Letter from Birmingham Jail1176 Words   |  5 Pagestechniques were used to gain the civil rights for the black people in a series of which came the â€Å"Letter form Birmingham jail† written by Martin Luther King himself. Kings Letter from Birmingham Jail was a profound and persuasive written argument which captured the emotions of many people encompassing rigid life experiences, educated observances, and deeply rooted spiritual beliefs. In this letter King freely expressed his position concerning the injustice that black people fa ced in America. Read MoreReaction Of Martin Luther Kings Letter From A Birmingham Jail1061 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† Reaction â€Å"We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed.† In 1963, Martian Luther King Jr was protesting for blacks to have equal rights in Birmingham, Al. The city administration found out about these protests and ordered the police to arrest them. Now in jail was confronted by a court and ordered not to protest in Birmingham. In response King wrote what is now known as the â€Å"LetterRead MoreAntigone And Martin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail831 Words   |  4 Pages54 years ago, and even during the BC ages was it a problem. Dr King’s letter explains how he knew he broke the law by blocking a road, but did it due to the racism and injustices that were happening. In Antigone, she buries her brother even though he was not meant to, and due to she is a female and that she broke the law that was unjust her consequence is to die. Sophocles’ Antigone and Martin Luther Kingâ⠂¬â„¢s â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† explore a common theme that law sometimes conflicts with justiceRead MoreAnalysis of Martin Luther Kings â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†973 Words   |  4 PagesMartin Luther King Jr, an civil rights activist, fought for the rights of African Americans in 1963. King organized various non-violent demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama that resulted in his arrest. While in jail, King received a letter from eight Alabama clergyman explaining their distress and opposition to King and his followers actions. This letter occasioned his reply and caused King to write a persuasive letter justifying his actions and presence in Birmingham. Although King’s reply wasRead MoreAnalysis Of Martin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail925 Words   |  4 PagesIn April of 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. found himself in a small cell in Birmingham Alabama, arrested for his participation in the peaceful protest of discrimination agains t African-Americans. King firmly believed that non-violent protest, in the form of sit-ins, boycotts, and picketing, would raise awareness of the prejudices African-Americans suffered and, in turn, lead to progress in gaining equal rights between the races. His â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† which he wrote during his incarceration

Sex Selective Abortion free essay sample

The practice continued to remain largely overlooked, until it was brought to North America by Asian and European immigrants seeking a new home in Canada and the United States. Now, sex-selective abortion has become an increasingly crucial issue in the eyes of the Canadian government; tens of millions of infant females are wrongfully killed each year, effectively skewering the sex ratio of the entire world. As more and more immigrants practicing this horrific act come to Canada, in turn the gender balance of our country has become affected as well. While it is an undoubtedly cruel and arbitrary act, the consequences of these actions extend far beyond moral objections; Canada has begun to experience altered sex-ratios and the outcomes of these decisions have begun to make themselves clear. This research paper will examine the consequences sex-selective abortion will have not only on the population of the world, but on the economic and social factors of all nations as well. SEX-SELECTIVE ABORTION Sex Selective Abortion: The Consequences of a World Full of Men The act of sex-selective abortion revolves around terminating a pregnancy solely based on the gender of the child. This barbaric practice stems from the deeply-held cultural beliefs in Eastern countries in which male heirs are considered far more valuable than females. This way of thinking is especially apparent in Asian countries such as India and China, but as of late it has become a practise in countries all over Europe and has recently come knocking on the doors of North America, most apparently in Canada. As Asian and European families migrate to Canada, they bring with them these ancient cultural beliefs, which have been often overlooked in the past. Because of this irrational preference for male over female heirs and recent advances in medical technology, predicting the sex of a child has become incredibly simple; this has lead to a massive spike in abortion rates all over the country and is slowly working towards altering the sex ratio of the entire world. If this practise is not outlawed entirely or severely abated in the coming years, then the social and economic consequences on the entire world will be severe and plentiful. Assets versus Liabilities Although this practise may seem unnecessarily cruel, it replaced a previous procedure that was far more horrific. Before the current advancements in technology were made, there was no way to determine the gender of a baby before it was born. Therefore, the practice of infanticide was implemented; families would murder the baby shortly after it was born if it were a female, or else abandon it and leave it to die. This shocking act occurred primarily in countries such as India and China, but quickly spread to other countries in the Caucasus including, but not limited to: Russia, Turkey and Uzbekistan. The sex-selective abortion of females occurs in countries such as these, because their culture involves putting much more value on a male heir as opposed to a female one. Males are considered â€Å"assets† because they are able to work and receive a dowry when they get married, while females are considered â€Å"liabilities† because they often work at home, generating no income for their family. Gupta (2005), observed that between the 1980s and 1990s in China, sex-selective abortion was noticeably absent in families with a first-born male child. In fact, in families with more han one son, male infants were more likely to be aborted than females; however, in families with one or more female children, all future female infants were likely to be aborted. Skewered Sex Ratios As can be expected, the mass-murder of millions of infant girls started to affect the gender ratios in the countries practicing this act. In an ideal situation, the ratio of boys born to girls born shou ld remain at 105:100. This accounts for males generally dying earlier owing to various factors such as sickness and wars, and would result in a generally balanced level of males to females. However, as a result of sex-selective abortion, the new expected sex ratio around the world is 107:100. While this may not seem like a significant difference, but when one takes into account that tens of thousands of infants are born each day, the displacement of all the aborted females becomes apparent. The following charts communicate a visual display of the millions of â€Å"missing† females around the world: Table 1 Excessive Female Deaths These figures are absolutely appalling; as is clear, roughly 1. million females died in 2008 in Africa however, very few perished at birth. If we examine the figures from China and India, they account for more than 1. 3 million infant females deaths in 2008 alone. If we apply these figures to the past three decades, taking into account that ultrasound technology has gained more precedence in that time, a conclusion can be drawn that an astonishing 39 million female deaths can be accounted to sex-selective abortion practises in China and India alone. While these figures are just a rough estimate as census reports are not one hundred percent accurate and the number of female infant deaths may vary from year to year, this presumed number is still incredibly shocking and makes the issue of sex-selective abortion extremely apparent. Economic Consequences While the millions of families all over the globe practise sex-selective abortion and infanticide in the hopes that they will bring some sense of honour to their family, in reality this issue is not simply one of misguided morals. As it turns out, there are numerous detrimental effects to the world economy in areas with a male majority population, the first being that males are much more likely to fall into debt. Men accosting a male-biased sex ratio are less likely to save if they are not with a female partner, more likely to take on massive credit card debts, and as a result will be more willing to take on undesirable financial deals in order to secure their financial security. Research conducted at The University of Minnesota shows that men are more likely to compete with each other for a potential mate by showing off their financial resources; this may include spending more frivolously, taking greater financial risks by purchasing items they may not be able to afford and discernibly consuming other items. While one may make the assumption that more spending would be better for the economy overall, if these men are not able to pay off their debts they would be forced to default or declare bankruptcy, resulting in a further deficit in the national money supply. The following chart displays a study conducted in which students were given a theoretical situation in which they had $2000 to spend; they could choose how much to spend on superficial items, and how much to set aside for savings: Table 2 Willingness to Incur Debt based on Sex Ratios According to this chart, men were much more likely to borrow money if there was a male-biased sex ratio, leading them even further into debt. Social Consequences Throughout our history, men have been responsible for vast numbers of crimes, more noticeably violent crimes. In particular, single men in countries such as India and China where status depends on your marital and financial situation are more prone to committing these types of crime. In the past 20 years, the crime rate among young single men in China has doubled – with crimes against women such as bride abduction, trafficking of women, rape and prostitution becoming especially apparent. In a study conducted by Edlund et. l, the skewered rates of sex ratios directly affected the rising rate of such crimes; they accounted for roughly one-seventh of all violent crimes in China. However, violence is not the only social consequence of skewered sex ratios. In China, suicide rates among females between the ages of 15-34 are at an all-time high; more often than not, these women can not bear the fact that they had to abort or kill their infant daughters. In most cases, the decision to practise sex-selective abortion or infanticide is initiated by the males of the family. This cultural belief is then brought over when families immigrate to Canada and are continued here, even though human rights laws in Canada are much different than those in countries where sex-selective abortion is typically practised. The social unrest that has started in these countries is sure to arrive in Canada and laws must be set in order to prevent such atrocities from occurring. One solution mentioned by several advocates for the eradication of sex-selective abortion is to prevent ultrasound screening past a certain point. Advances in medical technology have made it possible for doctors to predict the sex of the fetus as early as seven weeks; if this law were put into place, then it would be impossible for families to decide on an abortion solely based on the gender of the child. While the practise of sex-selective abortion has been out for centuries and has become an integral part of the culture in Asian and European countries, it is ultimately a cruel and senseless act. As Canadian society becomes more dependent on immigrants, our country is becoming host to individuals from far-ranging nations. Since many cultures favor the birth of a male child to that of a female child, the practice of sex-selective abortion is more widely accepted in other nations than it is in Canada. In India, for example, the practice of sex-selective abortion has already caused the national sex ratio to become skewed. Unfortunately, many immigrants do not necessarily abandon this mindset when they come to Canada, and they utilize the information disclosed during their pre-natal screenings to engage in sex-selective abortion.